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Find out moreThe Libyan port of Tobruk became a key strategic position for the Allies during World War Two (WW2). But in 1941, the ‘desert fox’ Erwin Rommel and his Afrikakorps had it well and truly surrounded.
The only thing stopping Rommel from capturing the city was a modest garrison of Australian, British and Commonwealth troops, who defended the position bravely in caves, tunnels and trenches. These plucky ‘Rats of Tobruk’ fought something of a David vs. Goliath struggle against their Axis adversaries for 241 days, despite having only meagre supplies, ammunition and support.
The result was one of the first tactical Allied victories of the war – and arguably a turning point in the entire conflict. This is the story of the Battle of Tobruk.
1940 was a dark year for the Allies in World War II. The German war machine had torn through Western Europe as far as the English Channel, and began pummelling British cities in The Blitz.
Over in North Africa, the British still controlled the Suez Canal in Egypt – an essential Allied shipping route – but the Axis were closing in.
On paper, it should have been a walkover for the Italians. But Marshall Rodolfo Graziani’s forces launched a botched and ineffectual invasion. They advanced only around 60 miles to the port of Sīdī Barrānī before stopping, awaiting engineers to construct the so-called ‘Victory Road’ along the coast.
Group of Italian officers near Tobruk in autumn 1941
While Graziani’s forces hesitated, General Wavell received reinforcements and made the first move. A mobile armoured force led by Lieutenant-General Nugent O’Connor stormed the Italian camps, while simultaneously cutting off their retreat. In just three days, the Allies seized nearly 40,000 prisoners.
O’Connor’s forces chased the remaining Italian troops out of Egypt, into Libya and onto the hump-shaped region of Cyrenaica.
There, the Allies captured Tobruk, as well as the crucial stronghold of Bardia, taking a further 75,000 prisoners. Both had been heavily fortified by the Italians.
The British troops seemed unstoppable. Next, they launched an audacious move to outflank additional Italian troops as they fled Benghazi, covering 170 miles in 33 hours as they cut across Cyrenaica. The Italians surrendered in droves, despite massively outnumbering the Allied forces in men, tanks and guns.
At the end of the offensive, the Allies had captured 130,000 Italian and Libyan prisoners in total.
But the Allies’ next move was to be a major strategic blunder:
O'Connor after their capture in North Africa
“The British had got to Benghazi, and had defeated the Italians. Operationally, the best thing to do would be to protect Cyrenaica from counterattack and push onto Tripoli. But they had a political requirement to go to Greece, where they were quickly outmanoeuvred.”
Dr. Robert Lyman, author of Tobruk: The Longest Siege
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill removed the bulk of his forces from North Africa to Greece. Unfortunately for the Allies, he did so before the fight had truly begun.
Hitler was furious at Italian incompetence in Egypt and Libya, and quickly sent one of his own generals to take control.
Erwin Rommel, a successful young general from the French campaign, landed in Tripoli on February 6th, 1941. He used speed to his advantage, and ambushed the British battalions in a series of unorthodox and unexpected manoeuvres.
A German dive bomber burning near Tobruk
Britain’s newly captured Libyan cities fell like a deck of cards. Rommel took El Agheila on March 24th and Mersa Bréga soon after. Despite orders from his high command to hold back, he then pushed further forward, and overran Benghazi by the 2nd of April.
The Allies beat a hasty, chaotic retreat back along the coast to Egypt, losing tanks and men along the way.
In an especially audacious move, Dr Lyman notes that Rommel next cut across the desert of Cyrenaica on a trail “traditionally used only by camel herders”, instead of following the expected coastal route. This cut off the British forces and sent them into further disarray.
The Allies’ immense progress in Libya was rendered worthless. By April 11th, almost all of Cyrenaica was back in Axis hands.
Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-782-0009-01A / Moosmüller / CC-BY-SA 3.0
Soon, however, the Allies would wear Lord Haw-Haw’s mockery as a badge of honour – dubbing themselves ‘The Rats of Tobruk’.
Tobruk is located on the north-eastern coast of Libya, just over 620 miles (or 1,000 kilometres) east of the capital, Tripoli.
Tobruk formed a significant foothold in North Africa during WW2 for a number of reasons.
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“Tobruk is the only natural port on the North African coastline between Tripoli and Alexandria, which is just over 1,000 miles. It’s important if you’re going to send an army east to west along the African coastline, and it means you can resupply them from the sea. So, whoever holds on to Tobruk is in control of a major part of the African coastline. It’s very significant, strategically”.
Dr Robert Lyman
General Sir Archibald Wavell commanded the Allied forces in Egypt, as well as the East African fronts against the Italians.
It was his decision to strike first against Graziani’s Italian forces – and he was highly successful in doing so. However, he met his match in the desert fox Erwin Rommel, whose audacious tactics sent Wavell’s forces into disarray. He was later replaced as commander in North Africa, and redeployed to the fight in southeast Asia.
The Australian commander of the forces at Tobruk, Morshead was a former schoolmaster and veteran of World War I, known for enforcing discipline. Swearing was not permitted on his watch, and his reputation for running a tight ship earned him the nickname ‘Ming the Merciless’. He was nonetheless a highly respected leader.
While the odds were against the Rats of Tobruk, Morshead would not accept defeat lying down: “There will be no Dunkirk here”, he said. “If we should have to get out, we shall fight our way out. There is to be no surrender and no retreat.”
Lieutenant-General Robert Scobie’s 70th Infantry Division arrived in Tobruk to relieve Morshead’s Australian divisions, and he would later take control of the besieged forces. A multi-talented individual, Scobie was also a Scottish international Rugby Union player.
Rommel was known for his wily tactical genius and audacious offences in the desert, which sometimes defied orders.
“The OKW, the military high command, never believed Rommel could get into Egypt, his job was simply to keep the British army occupied. But Rommel wanted to get to Cairo and make a name for himself”.
- Dr Lyman
As a hands-on commander who impressed those he came up against, Rommel won the admiration of many Allied troops and officers. His successes in North Africa would make him a celebrity.
He was, however, less well-liked by his own German and Italian forces. With Rommel, diplomatic niceties went out of the window when it came to dispatching orders to his Italian generals!
His tactics in North Africa included capturing British depots to improve his supply lines – and that’s why he wanted Tobruk.
Philip Neame was a high-ranking British Army officer in charge of a large but undermanned region of Cyrenaica. He commanded the Australian 9th Division and the British 2nd Armoured Division, both of which were forced into a hasty retreat at the onset of Rommel’s panzers. Neame was captured and sent to a POW camp in Italy.
It is said that Neame carries the distinction of being the only person ever to be awarded a Victoria Cross and an Olympic Gold Medal – which he won in a team shooting event at the Paris 1924 games.
A famed Australian soldier who won the Victoria Cross for his valour at Tobruk, Edmondson fought off two Axis troops despite wounds to the neck and stomach – saving an officer’s life in the process.
An icon in his native Australia, Derrick came from a humble background in farming, and showed outstanding courage on the battlefield at Tobruk.
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The action at Tobruk was centred around a 30-mile perimeter of the port, flanked to the north by the Mediterranean Sea, and the south by a number of cliffs and escarpments.
Impressive trenches, tunnels and other concrete fortifications left by the Italians were key to the Allies’ success. Caves in the vicinity also helped shelter soldiers from the heat, and hide from enemy fire.
Along the perimeter, Allied infantry defended trenches and strongholds. Outside the barbed wire, they patrolled aggressively against the Axis enemy, supported by tanks and guns to the rear.
Find out more with our in-depth look at ‘The Siege of Tobruk in numbers’.
Like many battles in the Second World War, troops from across the globe fought at Tobruk.
Australian 9th Div at Gaza in 1942.
The 9th Australian division was one of the most celebrated and decorated Australian units in the war, praised even by Rommel himself. After Tobruk, the 9th Division went on to fight at the two battles of El Alamein before moving back to the Pacific Theatre.
For their huge role in defeating Rommel, the ‘Rats of Tobruk’ won high renown in their home country and elsewhere.
After seeing action in the Middle East and Crete, the British 70th Army relieved the Australian forces at Tobruk. After heavy fighting with the Axis troops, they were able to escape the siege. The 70th Infantry was then stationed in India.
The 15th Panzer division took part in most of the Axis operations in North Africa. It was integral to the successful German defence against the many relief operations at Tobruk – including Operations Brevity and Battleaxe.
The Polish Independent Carpathian Rifles Brigade formed in Syria just months after the invasion of their homeland in 1939. When they relieved the Australian forces, they quickly earned a reputation as formidable fighters. After Tobruk, many of the Polish troops joined Wladyslaw Anders’ Polish II Corps in Palestine. More than 1,500 of them moved to Australia after the war.
April 10-12, 1941
The siege begins. Axis troops probe the Australian defences for weak-points, while Stuka planes strike the port.
April 30 - May 3, 1941
German and Italian advances capture key strategic points, but a determined counterattack by the defenders forces Rommel to call a retreat.
May 15 – June 16, 1941
Allied brigades attempt to lift the siege via bold assaults dubbed ‘Operation Brevity’ and ‘Operation Battleaxe’. These are ultimately unsuccessful, however.
August 1941
Australia’s brave Rats of Tobruk are replaced by soldiers from Britain and Poland, and withdrawn from their gruelling ordeal.
November, 1941
Operation Crusader is sprung. British, New Zealand and South African troops advance from the south and along the coast, allowing the garrison to heroically break out.
On April 10th, 1941, the Axis began their siege. Rommel outlined his objective to capture the Suez Canal, and ordered his German and Italian forces to prevent a breakout from Tobruk.
By April 12th, Italian and German units were probing the defences of the Australian forces. Rommel was also bombarding the port with German Stuka planes, and took the nearby fortress of Bardia. From there, his troops launched frequent attacks with the heavy artillery weapon known as ‘Bardia Bill’.
The Germans retreated, but aircraft picked up the slack. The Axis flew almost 1,000 sorties over Tobruk, and were also able to destroy a crucial anti-aircraft battery.
Meanwhile, Rommel personally led an attack from the west, combining armoured, motorised and infantry divisions. Nevertheless, the Australian battalions counter-attacked with great success – and captured an entire regiment.
The Germans and Italians were unable to dig into the rocky ground, which left them exposed to Allied fire. Seizing the initiative, Morshead ordered his garrison to start patrols, launch sorties and implement guerrilla attacks on the Axis troops. On 22nd April, the Australians raided a small hill held by Italian troops, taking hundreds of prisoners and destroying two guns.
Taken aback by this fierce resistance, Rommel hurried more Panzer divisions from Tripoli to help.
Troops from the Australian 2/2nd Infantry Battalion rush through the streets of Bardia
Rommel wanted to launch a larger-scale attack on the area – but supplies from the German high command were not forthcoming. Meanwhile, the besieged Australians and British continued to build up their defences, sow minefields, and receive supplies from Alexandria by boat.
The Battle of Tobruk would not, it seem, go smoothly for Rommel.
By this point, one of Rommel’s key weaknesses began to emerge. Dr Lyman puts the logistics of his challenge into perspective.
“By the time [Rommel] got to Tobruk, his lines of communications stretched about 1,000 or so miles… it’s a similar distance from London to Krakow. He was having to double that to get into Egypt, which was an impossible task.
“As a rule of thumb, for every soldier in a front-line battle, you need about ten behind to run the lines of communication. And of course, his resupply line from Italy down to Tripoli by ship across the Mediterranean was regularly being intercepted by Allied submarines.”
Rommel and his deputy, Major-General Friedrich Paulus, reported to high command that Libyan-Italian sea communications should be reinforced, and that the army needed ammunition, fuel and food before the dispatch of more vehicles and men.
Indeed, the lack of progress at Tobruk made Rommel change tack.
“He then switches to mainly air attack and artillery attack,” notes Dr Lyman, “trying to starve the defenders out.
“This was the moment when the Germans and Afrikakorps went off to fight in Egypt and the Italians were left to build a siege around Tobruk. The nature of the siege then changed. It ushered in an era where the Allies were besieged by artillery and aircraft. So, the period from May to November was basically one big air attack.”
Meanwhile, the defenders of Tobruk settled into a battle routine of short, sharp offensives to regain their lost ground – such as the famous ‘Twin Pimples raid’, launched by Allied commandos against Italian forces.
Twin Pimples Raid: Allied trench on the Tobruk perimeter
The Rats of Tobruk fought not only against German and Italian troops, but against the climate and landscape too.
Then, there were flies and fleas that were endemic among the troops, and the fact that the natural water available was quite oily. Allied soldiers initially thought the water supply had been poisoned, owing to its petrol-like taste.
The Allies were supplied each night by ship, which brought food and water and took away the wounded. This was colloquially known as ‘the spud run’ – and was a lifeline to the besieged Allies.
But even with the spud run, rations were poor at best. One account noted:
Dust storm over Libya
“Our meagre rations were a cup of tea in the morning and another one in the evening. The water came from a seawater desalination plant, but even the tea couldn't entirely mask the taste of salt. Our rations consisted of soya links, a type of sausage, tins of bully (corned) beef and pilchards and thick, dry biscuits.
“I distinctly remember the contents of one of the tins of biscuits were green and mouldy, and the tin labelled, 'Not fit for Human Consumption'”.
Despite the appalling conditions, those battling to defend Tobruk maintained high morale. In their spare time they played cards, wrote letters and shared stories, as well as swimming in the sea – a dangerous pastime, as they were routinely targeted by German stukas.
It was, as Dr Lyman wryly notes, akin to ‘extreme camping’.
Back in Egypt, the British forces were planning their relief operations. A convoy of more than 200 tanks arrived in Alexandria, and General Wavell came under pressure from Churchill to engage Rommel. Operation Brevity would be his initial attempt to do so.
Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-786-0301-32 / Dörner / CC-BY-SA 3.0
On May 15th, the Allied forces took their first steps towards lifting the siege and ending the battle for Tobruk. The first operation, codenamed Brevity, aimed to erode the Axis defences at Sollum and Fort Capuzzo, and capture the Halfaya Pass – a ridge that runs parallel to the sea. From there, they would launch a full offensive on the forces encircling Tobruk.
The German counterattack on 26th May, Operation Skorpion, fully ejected the Allies from the area. The Axis then fortified the area with mines and anti-tank guns.
To beat Rommel, the Allies would need far better preparation.
After the failure of Operation Brevity in May, the Allies launched a fresh offensive in June – a more direct attempt to lift the siege.
The Allies, under Lieutenant-General Noel Beresford-Peirse, aimed first to recapture key points from Operation Brevity, such as the Halfaya Pass and Fort Capuzzo. The 4th Indian Infantry Division would lead the charge, followed by the British 7th Armoured Division, who would then advance to the Hafid Ridge and engage the enemy tanks.
Again, however, the Allies underestimated the Axis. Rommel had expanded his forces to include the well-trained 15th Panzer division, who were particularly well-versed in tank warfare.
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Behind the perimeter in Tobruk, the situation was dire. The Australian forces had held out for many months in appalling conditions, and their health was deteriorating rapidly. The Australian government subsequently negotiated their withdrawal with Auchinleck.
On a moonless week in August 1941, the Rats of Tobruk were withdrawn from the siege. They were replaced by Polish, Czech and British brigades, and Leslie Morshead handed over command to Ronald Scobie.
Many of these brave soldiers went on to fight in Asia – and many never returned home.
Under the new command of Auchinleck, the Allies reorganised as the 8th Army comprising troops from Britain, New Zealand and South Africa. On the Axis side, Rommel had also expanded his forces.
The stage was set for Operation Crusader.
After Italian troops repelled the Allies in battle at Tobruk, Rommel sought to attack the rear echelons of the 8th Army. In a characteristically bold move, he ordered a ‘dash to the wire’ at the Egyptian border, attacking the rear of the 8th Army troops and causing chaos.
However, this allowed the front runners of the 8th Army a reprieve to meet the garrison in Tobruk and relieve the siege. Rommel swiftly ordered his troops back to Tobruk, where they faced heavy fighting against New Zealand and British troops at Bir el-Chleta and Ed Duda.
They were eventually repelled, and Rommel ordered his troops to move south away from the eastern perimeter of Tobruk.
Finally, the siege was lifted.
British Crusader tank passes a burning German Panzer IV tank during Operation Crusader
After 241 days, this notorious chapter in the battle of Tobruk was over – but the fighting was soon to reach new heights. Rommel would create a new front to the west of Tobruk at Gazala. There, he would decisively defeat the Allies and overrun the port in the space of a day.
The Allies fled in a state of total panic and disarray back to El Alamein – just 70 miles from the crucial Allied stronghold of Alexandria, and worryingly close to the Egyptian capital of Cairo. There, British officials burned documents and retreated to the train stations, believing Egypt, Suez and the precious oilfields of the middle east were finally lost to Axis control.
But the Allies tactical victory at Tobruk was more important than they realised.
The 8th Army had survived. Next, it dug in, regrouped and fought two gruelling battles against the Axis powers at El Alamein, defeating Rommel in North Africa – and pushing onwards into Italy. Just a few years later, the German war machine was being throttled from the south, east and west.
While Tobruk may sometimes be overshadowed by more decisive Allied victories in WW2, Dr Lyman notes how important it is to think about what would have happened had the defenders of Tobruk not held their ground, and the British Army not lifted the siege:
“We only got to [the Normandy landings of] 1944 because we were successful in 1941 and 1942 by the skin of our teeth. And that’s why the anchor of Tobruk, and El Alamein a year later, are so essential to the survival of this country during the war. [Without Tobruk and El Alamein] there is no victory, and no opportunity to rebuild a British Army, because it would have been lost. The 8th Army was the core that would be deployed into Italy and then Normandy in 1944”.
Dr Robert Lyman
The Allies were successful at Tobruk, not because of a decisive victory against Erwin Rommel, but because they were able to hold the city for months, and lift the siege on their own terms. This enabled the British Army to regroup at El Alamein – and finally defeat Rommel.
Almost 6,000 Allied troops were killed or wounded at Tobruk, including British, Australian, Indian and Polish soldiers. More than 500 were also missing in action (MIA).
According to the Rats of Tobruk Association, 17 Australian ‘Rats’ and one Polish veteran were still living in Australia at the end of 2020. Most of them had reached the age of 100.
The main siege took place between 10th April to 27th November, 1941.
The Allied forces consisted of Australian, British, Polish, Czech, New Zealand and Indian troops. The Axis forces were made up of Italian, Italian Libyan and German soldiers.
The siege took place at the port of Tobruk, in north-east Libya – about 1,000 miles along the coast from Tripoli, and around 300 miles from Benghazi.
German and Italian forces laid siege to the port of Tobruk, which was occupied by the Allies, for more than 200 days.
The Allies were able to escape the siege, but did not defeat Rommel.
There were around 6,000 Allied casualties, and 12,000 Axis casualties.
Tobruk was a key strategic and supply point on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa, between Alexandria and Tripoli.
Interview with Dr Robert Lyman
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https://ratsoftobrukassociation.org.au/the-siege/the-importance-of-tobruk/
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Playfair, Major-General I. S. O.; et al. (2004) [1st. pub. HMSO 1956]. Butler, J. R. M. (ed.). The Mediterranean and Middle East: The Germans Come to the Help of their Ally (1941). History of the Second World War, United Kingdom Military Series. Vol. II. Naval & Military Press. ISBN 978-1-84574-066-5.
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https://www.attackatdawn.com/post/maps-of-the-operation-brevity
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